In relation to social roles and demographic attributes of benefactors, several trends appeared. Although altruism did not consistently relate to sex in children, adult males were found to act less altruistically toward highly (versus lowly) dependent others, especially if they seemed threatening. Altruistic females acted more altruistically toward highly dependent others. A fairly consistent increase in altruism with age was found in children. There was some indication that people from large families are more altruistic than people from small families. Social-class differences were also found. Members of the working class and entrepreneurial middle class tended to behave in accord with the norm of reciprocity. Bureaucratic middle classers, on the other hand, were more socially responsible. Finally, although some international differences were found, they did not form a general pattern. When it came to social roles of recipients, an examination of the effects of friendship status, ingroup affiliation, and social class suggested that people give to those who are similar to them, to those who are prestigious, and to those from whom they stand to gain.
In relation to recipients, research was reviewed which supported Gouldner’s (1960) notions relating to the norm of reciprocity. An examination of what has been called generalized reciprocity demonstrated that the receipt of favors results in a general disposition toward altruism, in some situations. Although research was analyzed in the category of social norms, a state variable reference was assumed.
Considered as a whole, research on altruism has begun to identify general correlates and antecedents of particular beneficial behaviors. It has helped supply hints concerning socialization and the effect of judgments of altruism on everyday behavior. It has also cast light on important theoretical issues such as the viability of the psychoanalytic and reinforcement perspectives.
Philosophers were originally concerned with altruism because it related in an essential way to the nature of man. Although the methodology of current researchers is different, and their focus more specific, they are, in the final analysis, also trying to understand human nature. Many have welcomed the new research on the positive aspects of man, but it should be realized that the study of beneficial behaviors does not establish the existence of altruism. Elucidation of the phenomenon of altruism is, in fact, as capable of shaking the foundation of man’s self-conception as elucidation of such things as aggression and anxiety. Unfortunately, the fact that man acts altruistically does not mean that he is altruistic. The hopeful thing about research, however, is that at the same time as it sorts out antecedents, it identifies mechanisms that can lead to change.
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