negative publicity-Less motivation

Less motivation [Over the past 6 months, negative publicity surrounding law enforce-

ment has] Made it more difficult for you to be motivated at work. Caused you to be less proactive on the job than you were in the past. Caused you to be more apprehensive about using force even though it may be necessary. Negatively impacted the way you do your job. Made it less enjoyable to have a career in law enforcement.

Increased danger [Over the past 6 months, negative publicity surrounding law enforce-

ment has]. Made it more difficult to do your job. Made it more dangerous to be a law enforcement officer. Forced some US law enforcement agencies to make policy changes that ultimately threaten officer safety.

Affected colleagues [Over the past 6 months, negative publicity surrounding law enforce-

ment has]. Made it more difficult for your coworkers to do their job. Made it difficult for your coworkers to be motivated at work. Caused your coworkers to be less proactive on the job than theywere in the past. Caused your coworkers to bemore apprehensive about using force even though it may be necessary.

Affected US citizens In general, US citizens’ views toward the police have gotten worse over the past 6 months.

Affected local citizens Over the past 6 months, local citizens’ perceptions of law enforcement have gotten worse.

Notes

1 Officers Nero andGoodsonwere found not guilty of all charges onMay 23, 2016 and June 23, 2016, respectively. At the time of this writing, the other four officers are still awaiting trial (includingOfficer Porter, whose first trial resulted in amistrial due to a hung jury).

2 Others, including NYPD CommissionerWilliam Bratton, have referenced a “YouTube Effect,”which similarly refers to police officers withdrawing from their duties out of a fear of being captured on the next video to go viral on the Internet (Davis, 2015).

3 Rosenfeld (2016:2) has since concluded that the homicide increase in 56 large US cities “was real and nearly unprecedented,” though most of the overall increase was constrained to 10 cities which had experienced, on average, a 33% increase in homicides. While there are several possible explanations forwhy these cities experienced suchdrastic homicide increases, the Ferguson Effect is the most likely, according to Rosenfeld.

4 An anonymous reviewer pointed out that a supervisor might also have an officer’s back when s/he commits wrongdoing – which is certainly plausible. This would not be a function of organizational justice, but rather the blue code of silence (see Skolnick, 2002) which is particularly problematic for use of force investigations and the legitimacy of the police in the eyes of the public. Our use of the term “support” deals does not include such instances where a supervisor knowingly covers up officer misconduct.

5 This agency – one of the largest in its state – serves Marie County (pseudonym), which covers over 750 square miles and is home to approximately 401,000 citizens. Ac- cording to the most recent US Census data, the racial makeup of Marie County is roughly 48% white, 47% black, and 5% other. About one-fourth of the population is under the age of 18. Themedian household income is $48,674, but note that 16% of the population is liv- ing in poverty.

6 Less motivation: skewness = 0.37, kurtosis = 2.51; Increased danger: skew- ness =−0.53, kurtosis = 3.02; Affected colleagues: skewness= 0.13, kurtosis = 2.84.

7 The parallel-lines assumption (i.e., proportional odds) is often violated when using ordered logistic regression because one or more coefficients in an equation may differ across values of the outcome measure (Williams, 2006). We used the Brant (1990) test to assess whether the regression coefficients in the ordered logistic models were similar across the response categories for each of the dependent variables (see also, Long & Freese, 2006). According to this test, the parallel-lines assumptionwas violated inModels 4 and 5 in Table 2. We reestimated these equations using Stata’s gologit2 command which allows some regression coefficients to be the same across all values of a dependent variable and others to differ. A multinomial logit would allow all parameters to vary across the depen- dent variable but such an equation would lack interpretability and parsimony (Breen, Luijkx, Muller, & Pollak, 2009; Williams, 2006). The generalized ordered logit robustness checks revealed substantively similar results as those presented below. For ease of inter- pretation, we report the ordered logit findings.

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Justin Nix is an assistant professor in the Department of Criminal Justice at the University of Louisville. He received his PhD in criminology and criminal justice at the University of South Carolina. His research is centered in policing with a focus on legitimacy. His work has recently appeared in Justice Quarterly, Crime & Delinquency, and Journal of Quantitative Criminology.

Scott E. Wolfe is an assistant professor in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of South Carolina. He received is PhD in criminology and criminal justice from Arizona State University. His research focuses on police legitimacy, organiza- tional justice, and criminological theory. His recent work has appeared in the Journal of Quantitative Criminology, Justice Quarterly, and Law and Human Behavior.