The Generalizability of the MMRI to Other Groups

The extent to which the MMRI can serve as a meta- framework for examining other group identities (such as ethnicity and gender) is open to debate. Because the MMRI integrates ideas from the mainstream approach, certain aspects of the model may be applicable to other group identities. In particular, the structure and the processes of group identity may be similar across groups. For example, much of the mainstream literature has reported evidence of the existence of identity sali- ence and centrality for identities other than African American racial identity (e.g., Cota & Dion, 1986; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992; Markus & Nurius, 1986; McCrae & Costa, 1988; McGuire et al., 1978). Salience and centrality appear to be general cognitive processes that are not confined to any one identity. Thus, in a fairly gender-ambiguous situation, we would predict that gen- der is likely to be more salient for a woman for whom gender is a highly central aspect of her identity than for a woman for whom gender is less central. However, the qualitative meaning of these identities are likely to differ according to the historical experiences associated with the group.

Thus, it is imperative that any application of the MMRI to other groups only be done after a careful assessment of the model’s compatibility with the his- torical and cultural experiences of the group in question. The four ideologies delineated by the MMRI are based specifically on our extensive study of the unique cul- tural and historical experiences of African Americans. Although the issues of assimilation and nationalism are relevant to other ethnic groups, there is a qualitative difference in the historical significance that these vari- ous philosophies have for different ethnic groups. For instance, there may be less tension around issues of assimilation for ethnic groups who have migrated to the United States looking for a better life as opposed to those who had American culture forced on them. Also, there may be group differences in the way that various ideologies are interrelated for various groups. There may be unique ideological profiles for African Ameri- cans based on their experiences. Similarly, the interre- lation between the dimensions and other aspects of the self may also differ across groups as a result of the qualitative differences in the experiences of the groups. Rowley et al. (in press) have found evidence that the relation between public regard and personal self-esteem does not seem to be important for African Americans, while research with other ethnic groups suggests that such a relation is important (Crocker et al., 1994).

Conclusions

The MMRI is an integration of the mainstream and underground approaches. The MMRI has borrowed

ideas from the mainstream perspective (e.g., concerning the role of racial identity in the context of other identi- ties within the self-concept) and merged them with the underground approach’s emphasis on the qualitative meaning of being Black. As a result, the MMRI is both “prescriptive” in proposing hypotheses for potential research questions regarding the structure and dynam- ics of racial identity in the self-concepts of African Americans and “descriptive” in proposing relevant di- mensions in which to illustrate the complexity and variability that African Americans ascribe to being Black. It also has the potential to serve as a conceptual framework that could be adapted with care to the study of other group identities. In sum, the MMRI provides a vehicle for addressing new questions regarding African American racial identity that can contribute signifi- cantly to both the underground and mainstream ap- proaches.

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Appendix: The Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity

Centrality Scale’

1. Overall, being Black has very little to do with how I feel about myself. (R)

2. In general, being Black is an important part of my self-image.

3. My destiny is tied to the destiny of other Black people.

4. Being Black is unimportant to my sense of what kind of person I am. (R)

5. I have a strong sense of belonging to Black people.

6. I have a strong attachment to other Black peo- ple.

7. Being Black is an important reflection of who I am.

8. Being Black is not a major factor in my social relationships. (R)

Regard Scalea

Private Regard Subscale

1. I feel good about Black people. 2. I am happy that I am Black. 3. I feel that Blacks have made major accomplish-

ments and advancements. 4. I often regret that I am Black. (R)

5. 6.

I am proud to be Black. I feel that the Black community has made valu- able contributions to this society.

Public Regard Subscale

1. Overall, Blacks are considered good by others. 2. In general, others respect Black people. 3. Most people consider Blacks, on the average, to

be more ineffective than other racial groups. (R) 4. Blacks are not respected by the broader society.

(R) 5. In general, other groups view Blacks in a posi-

tive manner. 6. Society views Black people as an asset.

a(R) items should be reverse coded.

Ideology Scale

Assimilation Subscale

1. Blacks who espouse separatism are as racist as White people who also espouse separatism.

2. A sign of progress is that Blacks are in the mainstream of America more than ever before.

3. Because America is predominantly White, it is important that Blacks go to White schools so that they can gain experience interacting with Whites.

4. Blacks should strive to be full members of the American political system.

5. Blacks should try to work within the system to achieve their political and economic goals.

6. Blacks should strive to integrate all institutions which are segregated.

7. Blacks should feel free to interact socially with White people.

8. Blacks should view themselves as being Ameri- cans first and foremost.

9. The plight of Blacks in America will improve only when Blacks are in important positions within the system.

Humanist Subscale

1. Black values should not be inconsistent with human values.

2. Blacks should have the choice to marry interra- cially.

3. Blacks and Whites have more commonalties than differences.

4. Black people should not consider race when buying art or selecting a book to read.

AFRICAN AMERICAN RACIAL IDENTITY

5. Blacks would be better off if they were more concerned with the problems facing all people than just focusing on Black issues.

6. Being an individual is more important than identifying oneself as Black.

7. We are all children of a higher being, therefore, we should love people of all races.

8. Blacks should judge Whites as individuals and not as members of the White race.

9. People regardless of their race have strengths and limitations.

Oppressed Minority Subscale

1. The same forces which have led to the oppres- sion of Blacks have also led to the oppression of other groups.

2. The struggle for Black liberation in America should be closely related to the struggle of other oppressed groups.

3. Blacks should learn about the oppression of other groups.

4. Black people should treat other oppressed peo- ple as allies.

5. The racism Blacks have experienced is similar to that of other minority groups.

6. There are other people who experience racial injustice and indignities similar to Black Ameri- cans.

7. Blacks will be more successful in achieving their goals if they form coalitions with other oppressed groups.

8. Blacks should try to become friends with people from other oppressed groups.

9. The dominant society devalues anything not White male oriented.

Nationalist Subscale

1. It is important for Black people to surround their children with Black art, music and literature.

2. Black people should not marry interracially. 3. Blacks would be better off if they adopted Afro-

centric values. 4. Black students are better off going to schools

that are controlled and organized by Blacks. 5. Black people must organize themselves into a

separate Black political force. 6. Whenever possible, Blacks should buy from

other Black businesses. 7. A thorough knowledge of Black history is very

important for Blacks today. 8. Blacks and Whites can never live in true har-

mony because of racial differences. 9. White people can never be trusted where Blacks

are concerned.

Note: Response scale ranges from 1 (Strongly Dis- agree) to 7 (Strongly Agree).

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